Socialism with Chinese Characteristics—Introductory Study Guide
Under the leadership of the Communist Party of China (CPC), China has transformed in just 70 years from a poor, underdeveloped country mired by feudalism and imperialism into a sovereign socialist society and the world’s second-largest economy. 2020 marked historic new achievements in China’s socialist path: the elimination of absolute poverty and the containment of COVID-19.
As “advanced” Western capitalist nations remain plagued by the impacts of the pandemic—disproportionately born by a permanent and growing underclass—the question for socialists and all concerned people must be: why has the Chinese system produced such different outcomes? To this end, this resource list provides a starting point for understanding China’s rapid development through a close examination of Chinese socialist theory and governance. Here, Qiao Collective offers a cursory reading guide that illuminates both the history of China’s development and the theory of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics (SWCC)—the CPC’s political economic philosophy.
Assessments of China’s political-economic system take on geopolitical significance in a context in which a renewed U.S.-instigated Cold War draws on longstanding patterns of anti-communism to slander the accomplishments of Chinese socialism. On the one hand, the Trump administration put U.S.-China relations in terms of a clash of ideologies, posing liberal democracy against what former Secretary of State Mike Pompeo described in 2019 as a “Marxist-Leninist party focused on...international domination.” On the other hand, many self-described Western socialists have adopted a same-same pessimism which casts China as the mirror to the United States: a hyper-capitalist, imperialist power which seeks not multilateralism but an era of Chinese hegemony. This nihilist posture enables a disavowal of Cold War aggression by painting it as an “inter-imperialist” rivalry.
Accurate assessment is therefore critical amidst a bipartisan “China threat” discourse propelled by state-sponsored information war which seeks to distort the nature of China’s political economic system and its future ambitions. Far from hegemonic ambitions, China’s official political philosophy prioritizes people-centered development, peaceful coexistence, and the development of China’s national industries through strategic engagement with the global economy in order to build socialism and enable its gradual development into communism.
In the midst of heightened Western aggression, it is urgent to engage China on its own terms—and through a materialist analysis—to understand the implications and historical scope of Chinese socialism in the present day. Beyond fear mongering narratives or romanticized projections of a ‘socialist utopia’, a closer look at the theory and practice of Chinese socialist governance reveals the great accomplishments, evolving contradictions, and people-centered ambitions of the Chinese people. Such inquiry can yield opportunities for peaceful cooperation to meet the global challenges of our time, from climate change to pandemic recovery.
Table of Contents
1. Introduction and Summary of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics (SWCC)
Socialism with Chinese Characteristics (SWCC) defines the CPC’s approach to governing China and how it can best lead the Chinese working class, people, and nation. SWCC marks the second great innovation in the Sinicization of Marxism-Leninism, the first being those advances enshrined under Mao Zedong Thought (ML-MZT).
SWCC began to emerge in 1978 under Deng Xiaopeng’s leadership when the CPC declared that class struggle was no longer China’s primary contradiction. Instead, it defined the primary contradiction as resting between the ever-growing material and cultural needs of the people and backward social productivity. China has since made remarkable achievements by implementing successful but often misconstrued policies like reform and opening up, market socialism, and “one country, two systems.” Rather than a retreat to capitalism, these policies make up a refined approach to socialism, as practiced by the CPC under China’s conditions. Rather than a rebuke of the Mao era, SWCC represents the adaptation of Chinese socialism for a new era. As Deng Xiaoping himself put it: “From many aspects, right now we are merely implementing what Mao Zedong already put out, but was unable to do himself.”
China reached a new milestone by 2017 when Xi Jinping announced that Socialism with Chinese Characteristics had entered a new era by making steady progress in building a moderately prosperous society. Today, the CPC identifies China’s primary contradiction as resting between the nation’s unbalanced and inadequate development and the people’s ever-growing needs for a better life. Unbalanced development means that some regions are more developed than others and that generally speaking, some people benefit more than others from development, and inadequate development means there’s not enough development of material and social resources overall. Development includes not only economic development, but also political, cultural, social, and ecological development. Moving forward, the CPC will focus greater attention on policies that reduce wealth inequality and strengthen social harmony, while further developing China’s productive forces, which are the material basis of the economy: natural resources (water, land, sun, minerals), human labor power (scientific knowledge, research, skills), and the means of production (factories, tools, technology), so as to build a modern socialist country.
Socialism with Chinese Characteristics articulates some basic tenets:
The “Essence of Socialism” is developing the productive forces, which will eventually bring about communism via the withering of the state.
China is in the “Primary Stage of Socialism,” where the central task is economic development.
There are other tasks which complement the central task of economic development. These include improving China’s political, cultural, social, and ecological institutions, safeguarding China’s sovereignty from foreign interference and improving the Party’s discipline and capacity to serve the people.
Under socialism, the correct tool to create these improvements is reform, not revolution. Reform means strengthening China’s various institutions and removing social and institutional barriers to developing the productive forces. This shift recognized that the Chinese revolution had successfully established a people’s democracy and that the excesses of the Cultural Revolution had stalled rather than augmented material development.
The Chinese people and nation are led by the CPC, which is the vanguard Party of the Chinese working class. The legitimacy of the CPC’s leadership is founded on the people’s historical choice, one expressed through two people’s wars leading to the establishment of the People’s Republic of China. To maintain China's effective governance and deter chaos and decline, China will not adopt Western procedural democracy (whose material basis lies in capitalist expansionism and the continued domination of an imperial bourgeoisie).
The CPC relies on the working class to build Socialism with Chinese Characteristics. The working class includes laborers, farmers, and intellectuals.
The CPC also protects the rights of those in the “new social strata” who work in the non-public sector, including entrepreneurs and technical personnel in private enterprises. These people are considered “constructors of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics.” Contradistinct from the entrepreneurial class within Western capitalist states, the development of the new social strata first and foremost aim to strengthen national development rather than accumulate private wealth.
SWCC’s overall goals are to achieve prosperity, national rejuvenation, social harmony, and people's well-being. Prosperity means to be both rich and strong, so that the people live comfortably and that the nation can withstand external attacks. In particular, the CPC aims to achieve common prosperity, where all people are rich in both their material and spiritual life. In the long run, common prosperity can also be thought of as communism, a society organized by the principle “from each according to their capacity, to each according to their needs;” however, in the current era, common prosperity is better thought of as a joint process of building prosperity by everyone and for everyone to increase the size of the pie, not to ensure that all pie sizes are equal. National rejuvenation is the current historical process of transforming China from a backwards, closed society to a modern socialist nation that can increasingly develop towards common prosperity. Social harmony is peaceful relations and increasing unity between people of different ethnicities, regions, class, and political perspectives.
As China makes progress towards these goals, its approach to governance receives the vast majority of people’s support. Over 90% approve of the central government, 90% trust the government, and 95% think China is headed in the right track. China’s institutions continue to undergo reform in areas like anti-corruption, socialist rule of law, and economic systems of coordination and innovation.
This resource list is intended to help contextualize what China is doing so that we can build resistance against U.S. propaganda and aggression and towards a vision of shared humanity and common destiny. Even if we may differ with China on priorities and preferred policies, our focus in the imperial core must not be empty critique. Instead, we understand that imperial escalation in the forms of military containment, sanctions, and information warfare does nothing to resolve the internal contradictions within Chinese society. Instead, it harms the interests of workers both in China and around the world. Recognizing our role as anti-imperialists and socialists, this resource list is designed to introduce China’s approach to governance so that those in the West can better understand the common ground they share with the CPC on which we might build a better world.
2. Theory of SWCC
These sources give an overview of the general perspective towards governance under Socialism with Chinese Characteristics (SWCC). SWCC is Marxism-Leninism applied to China in the post-1979 period. Marxism-Leninism with Mao Zedong Thought (ML-MZT) is Marxism-Leninism applied to China during the Mao era. SWCC is built upon the foundations of ML-MZT. Having a basic understanding of all three is crucial to understanding China’s approach to governance today.
a. Key Concepts of Marxism-Leninism (ML)
These sources provide a brief intro to the theory of Marxism-Leninism. Briefly, Marxism-Leninism is the study of class struggle and how to improve society by organizing the vast majority of people via a worker’s Party.
Dessalines. Crash Course Socialism. Github. December 1, 2020.
Describes how capitalist lack of democracy in the workplace leads to prioritizing profit over human needs, which is why Capitalism necessarily has certain flaws, and only Socialism can fix them.
Dessalines. “Does Capitalism Work?”. Github. December 22, 2020.
The capitalist status of the world that motivates people to seek Marxism-Leninism.
Jin, Chongji. “An Epoch-Making Event.” Research on Mao Zedong and Deng Xiaoping Theory, no. 6 (2011): 7-10.
A summary of China’s conditions when the CPC was founded and its achievements. Its explanation for why only the CPC could lead the Chinese nation to defeat imperialism and feudalism explains generally why a Party is needed for revolution from a Marxist-Leninist perspective.
Red Menace. “Socialism: Utopian and Scientific -- Friedrich Engels.” Red Menace. February 11, 2019.
This podcast summarizes the book by Engels that traces the origins of Scientific Socialism, a scientific approach to changing society for the better by transitioning from Capitalism to Socialism.
Red Menace. “State and Revolution: Marx, Lenin, & the Dictatorship of the Proletariat.” Red Menace. June 3, 2019.
This podcast summarizes Lenin’s book The State and Revolution, which outlines why in a socialist state it is necessary to suppress capitalists to prioritize the needs of the vast majority of people.
Wang, Chuanzhi. “Democratic Centralism: The Core Mechanism in China’s Political System.” Qiushi Journal. October 1, 2013.
Democratic Centralism is a founding tenet of Marxism-Leninism. It is an approach to decision-making where democracy and centralism are balanced to achieve the best outcomes. Too much centralism means the decision-makers are unaccountable to the whole. But too much democracy inhibits decisions from being implemented quickly and effectively. In practice, democratic centralism typically means open discussion before a decision is made, and strictly abiding by a decision once made until it is re-evaluated.
b. Marxism-Leninism with Mao Zedong Thought
These sources provide a brief introduction to the theory of Marxism-Leninism with Mao Zedong Thought (ML-MZT), which is Marxism-Leninism applied to China’s conditions. Specifically, ML-MZT outlines how to wage revolution in a semi-colonial, semi-feudal state and also clarifies some essential practices for a revolutionary party.
Mao, Zedong. “Analysis of the Classes in Chinese Society.” Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung. March 1926.
Mao argues that the primary reason why revolutions fail is because of their failure to distinguish real friends from real enemies. Where the two deviations of the Party in 1926 veered toward either the Kuomintang or the labor movement, respectively, Mao argued that the Party must ally itself with peasants (semi-proletariats) and industrial proletariats—true friends who could form the backbone of a Chinese revolution with the vacillating forces of the middle bourgeoisie, against imperialists, warlords, and the comprador and the big landowning classes.
Mao, Zedong. “On Contradiction.” Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung. August 1937.
Articulates a practical approach to dialectical thinking, which is the foundation for Chinese policy-making and prioritization of work.
Mao, Zedong. “On Practice.” Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung. July 1937.
Explains the origins of “seeking truth from facts” and “crossing the river by feeling the stones.” It speaks to how to apply scientific socialism in the context of a Party.
Freedom Road Socialist Organization. “Some Points on the Mass Line.” FRSO: Freedom Road Socialist Organization (blog). February 20, 2008.
Describes the process for how a Party relies on the people to change society. As a vanguard Party, the CPC leads the people to meet their demands for a better life.
Tsinghua University. “Introduction to Mao Zedong Thought | 毛泽东思想概论.” EdX, TsinghuaX (course). February 24, 2016.
The first Chinese ideological and political theory course that has been launched overseas and the first online course in China on Mao Zedong Thought. Explores questions like “Why could the Chinese Revolution be a success, how did China build the basic system of socialism, and how did Mao explore the laws of socialist construction?”
Tsinghua University. “Introduction to Mao Zedong Thought | 毛泽东思想概论.” Qiao Collective (blog). October 24, 2021.
PDF format of this Tsinghua University’s course, “Introduction to Mao Zedong Thought.”
Qiao Collective. “Study Guide: Tsinghua University Introduction to Mao Zedong Thought.” Qiao Collective (blog). October 24, 2021.
In-depth introduction to how the practice of Marxism-Leninism was developed and applied to China’s conditions before 1978. Highlights key questions and takeaways from Tsinghua University’s “Introduction to Mao Zedong Thought.”
c. Socialism with Chinese Characteristics
These sources provide a brief intro to the theory of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics (SWCC). SWCC builds upon the theoretical foundations of Marxism-Leninism with Mao Zedong Thought (ML-MZT) and includes notable innovations like reform and opening up, market socialism, and the people's democratic dictatorship.
Anticonquista and Qiao Collective. “The Governance of China” By Xi Jinping | Political Education Session #8, 2020.” YouTube. November 27, 2020.
Contextualizes the Chinese Dream, targeted poverty alleviation, socialist rule of law, and supply-side structural reform.
“Constitution of the Communist Party of China.” Qiushi Journal. February 11, 2018.
The guiding principles and organizational structure of the CPC. In particular, the Constitution’s General Program outlines the Party’s commitment to Socialism and the particularities of applying Marxism-Leninism to China’s conditions.
“理论书库--理论--人民网.” 理论--人民网 (blog). 2021.
[Chinese only] CPC Theory Library offers a variety of books for reference on particular areas of work for orientation on building Socialism with Chinese Characteristics.
Tsinghua University. “Introduction to the Theoretical System of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics | 中国特色社会主义理论体系概论.” EdX, TsinghuaX (course).
Part 2 after the “Introduction to Mao Zedong Thought” course. Gives an overview of how the practice of Marxism-Leninism was developed and applied to China’s conditions after 1978. Explores questions like “How to understand the primary stage of socialism, why did China reform and open up, and for whom and by whom do we build socialism?”
Tsinghua University. “Introduction to the Theoretical System of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics | 中国特色社会主义理论体系概论.” Qiao Collective (blog). October 24, 2021.
PDF format of this Tsinghua University’s course, “Introduction to the Theoretical System of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics.”
Qiao Collective. “Study Guide: Introduction to the Theoretical System of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics.” Qiao Collective (blog). October 24, 2021.
In-depth introduction to how the practice of Marxism-Leninism was developed and applied to China’s conditions from 1978 to 2016. Highlights key questions and takeaways from Tsinghua University’s “Introduction to the Theoretical System of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics.”
Qiu Shi. “Making ‘Four Important Distinctions’ in Theoretical and Practical Issues.” Qiushi Journal. January 1, 2011.
Clarifies the role of Marxism and non-Marxism in Chinese society, the relationship between public sector and non-public sector, the necessity of CPC leadership of China and never Western procedural democracy, and the continued struggle for socialist values over feudal and capitalist ones.
Xi, Jinping. Greer, Tanner trans. “Uphold and Develop Socialism with Chinese Characteristics.” Palladium Magazine. May 31, 2019.
Explains how only Socialism with Chinese Characteristics can develop China and why it is important to uphold Mao’s legacy and contributions.
Xi, Jinping. “Xi Jinping: The Governance of China.” English Version. 1st edition. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 2014.
———. “Xi Jinping: The Governance of China Volume 2: Reprint edition.” Place of publication not identified: Shanghai Press, 2018.
———. “Xi Jinping: The Governance of China Volume Three.” Foreign Languages Press, 2020.
Selections of speeches by Xi Jinping to guide CPC members in the understanding, implementation, and further development of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics.
Zeng, Peiyan. “The Establishment of the Socialist Market Economy.” Qiushi Journal. July 1, 2012.
Describes how the planned economy has limits in its ability to develop the productive forces and how the establishment of the socialist market economy resolves that shortcoming and furthermore contributes to the development of Marxism.
d. Socialism with Chinese Characteristics in the New Era
“The New Era” reflects China’s new principal contradiction between unbalanced and inadequate development and the people’s ever-growing needs for a better life. These sources provide an intro to the new objectives and guidelines used by the Party to realize people's aspirations for a better life and the Chinese dream of national rejuvenation.
Angang Hu, Yilong Yan, and Xiao Tang et al. “2050 China: Becoming a Great Modern Socialist Country.” Singapore: Springer, 2021.
After building a moderately prosperous society in all respects by 2020, China begins to build a modern socialist country in 2 stages: from 2020-2035, China will basically realize socialist modernization, and from 2035-2050 China will further advance its democratic, cultural, and ecological construction. By 2078, China will be a highly developed great modern socialist country.
Angang Hu, Yilong Yan, and Xiao Tang. “Xi Jinping’s New Development Philosophy.” Singapore: Springer, 2018.
Because China is still in the Primary Stage of Socialism, development plays a key role. The New Development Philosophy expands the Western concept of entrepreneurial development to include innovation from everyday people, institutions, and systems. It puts forward “coordinated development” to navigate unbalanced development, as well as green, open, shared, and security development.
National Development and Reform Commission. “The Roadmap for Our New Journey Toward a Modern Socialist Country.” Qiushi Journal. April 30, 2021.
Highlights policy updates contained in the Outline of the 14th Five-Year Plan, including coordinated and innovation-driven development to continue modernization, rural revitalization to fight relative poverty, and new development dynamic based on the domestic economy.
Xi, Jinping. “Secure a Decisive Victory in Building a Moderately Prosperous Society in All Respects and Strive for the Great Success of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era.” Report to the 19th CPC National Congress. October 18, 2017.
Xi Jinping outlines 14 points that form the basic policy that underpins the CPC’s endeavors to uphold and develop socialism with Chinese characteristics in the new era. He also overviews 6 guidelines to unlock the development of productive forces, 6 areas to further improve China’s socialist democracy, and additional commentaries on developing China’s socialist culture, people’s well-being, ecological civilization, defense, reunification, international relations, and Party building.
Zhanbin Zhang, Silin Ai, and Daokui Li et al. "【理论圆桌会】如何理解和实现"共同富裕"." 中国共产党新闻网. August 23, 2021. (Chinese only)
The goal of common prosperity is to put forward policies that not only increase income for the overwhelming majority of people, but to do so in a way that ensures that cultural life is rich, that the environment is healthy, and that people have a sense of security and happiness. Notably, the meaning of common prosperity is not to take wealth from the rich and redistribute it to the poor so that all people have the same amount of wealth without distinction. Common prosperity is an approach of development that benefits all people, both materially and spiritually.
3. Practice of SWCC
These sources give an overview of the actual institutions, policies, and outcomes of governance under Socialism with Chinese Characteristics (SWCC). SWCC began to emerge under Deng Xiaopeng’s leadership of China starting in 1978.
a. Historical conditions of China
These sources provide context for the governance of China today by outlining the history and traditions of China as relevant to its governance. The governance of China is based on China’s conditions—its geography, culture, and history.
Hammond, Kenneth J. and The Great Courses. “From Yao to Mao: 5000 Years of Chinese History.” The Great Courses. July 8, 2013.
A short history of China that touches on what makes China unique and what it shares in common with the West in terms of how its political institutions developed historically. It begins in the prehistoric period and covers high-level events and changes.
Party History Research Centre of the CPC Central Committee. A Concise History of the Communist Party of China. Edited by Hu Sheng. Translated by Central Translation Bureau. Beijing: Foreign Language Press, 1994.
The history of the CPC as told by the CPC. As the vanguard of the Chinese working class and the Chinese nation, the CPC matured in the face of difficulties and setbacks as it led the Chinese people in the struggle for national liberation, socialist construction, and socialist modernization.
Rich, Nathan. “Epic China.” YouTube. 2019.
A brief, opinionated, and dynamic history of China. Currently a work in progress. It aims to focus on the modern period of China’s history. The first few episodes describe the character of Chinese dynastic rule and the historical regularity of famine.
The Party for Socialism and Liberation and Qiao Collective. “5-Part Class: From Opium Wars to Trade Wars: China’s Long Path toward Socialism.” Liberation School (blog).
A lecture series on China’s history between 1800-1979. It focuses on the period leading up to the Chinese revolution when China was a semi-colonial, semi-feudal state.
Zhang, Weiwei. The China Wave: Rise Of A Civilizational State. Hackensack, N.J: Wcpc, 2012.
A clear outline of the ways China’s culture and geography are integrated into national governance. Zhang argues that the CPC’s political economic philosophy is a “humanistic” one that prioritizes an alignment between Chinese peoples and their natural resources, contributing to China’s rise.
Zhao, Liang, dir. General History of China; Documentary, 2013.
100 episode large-scale documentary produced by CCTV Film Channel Program Center and Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. It tells China’s history in three perspectives: formation and development of a unified multi-ethnic country, the rise and fall of past dynasties, and the distinctive characteristics of Chinese culture.
b. Constitutions
These sources define the purpose, scope, and organization of the People’s Republic of China and the Communist Party of China.
“Constitution of the People’s Republic of China.” The National People's Congress of the People's Republic of China. Accessed December 29, 2020.
The constitution defines the general principles for the governance of China, the fundamental rights and obligations of citizens, and various state institutions.
“Constitution of the Communist Party of China.” Qiushi Journal. February 11, 2018.
The guiding principles and organizational structure of the CPC. In addition to the General Program, the ensuing 11 chapters and 55 articles describe how the Party is organized and expectations for party members.
c. Key Political Institutions of the State
These sources provide a look at China’s key institutions for governance as defined by the Constitution of the People’s Republic of China.
i. The National People’s Congress (NPC) and Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC)
CGTN. “Explainer: CPC-Led Multi-Party Cooperation and Political Consultation.” CGTN. November 21, 2019.
Illustrates the relationship between the CPC, China’s other 8 political parties, the CPPCC (Chinese People’s Political Consultancy Conference), and the government of China as the high-level organs of consultative democracy.
CGTN. “From Grassroots to Lawmaker: Meet Liu Li Who Gives Voice to the Disadvantaged.” CGTN. May 22, 2020.
Looks at one National People’s Congress deputy’s efforts to create proposals that become government policy.
“Democracy for 1.3 Billion: Members of China’s Legislature Represent All Walks of Life.” CGTN. March 10, 2017.
Illustrates how legislators are elected at varying levels of governance from the township level up to the National People’s Congress.
ii. The President of the People’s Republic of China
CGTN. “Who Are CPC’s New Leaders?” CGTN. 2017.
A list of Xi Jinping’s governing experience within the CPC prior to becoming President. Also features a short speech where Xi emphasizes the continued need for reform.
iii. The State Council
Diab, Nadim. “The Invisible Hands Helping China’s Neediest Shake off Poverty.” CGTN. June 2, 2020.
Documentary about the work of one of 2.8 million poverty relief officials, hosted by Lebanese reporter Nadim Diab. The work of these officials is supervised by the State Council Leading Group Office of Poverty Alleviation and Development.
Huang, Shuxian. “Using Supervision to Promote the Transformation of Government Functions.” Qiushi Journal. January 1, 2014.
Describes the character of reform as it applies to the state council. Government is constantly reorganized to suit new functions required by the socialist market economy.
Meng, Yaping. “China’s Meritocracy: Selection and Election of Officials.” CGTN. December 26, 2019.
Describes the process used to appoint government officials who have the capacity for leadership. The process includes passing eligibility criteria based on experience and style of work, putting in a formal proposal explaining why a particular person is a good candidate for an upcoming role, democratic recommendation where a discussion and ballot is held to inform the appointment, appraisal of top candidates according to assessment criteria, discussion about who should be appointed to which roles, and finally appointment.
Wei, Changhao. “A Guide to 2018 State Council Institutional Reforms (FURTHER UPDATED).” NPC Observer. March 14, 2018.
Describes the seven different types of organizations under the State Council and a list of agencies that were restructured in 2018 to support reform.
Xinhua. “Profile: Li Keqiang: A Man Who Puts People First.” Qiushi Journal. December 24, 2012.
A personal profile of the current Premier, who is the head of the State Council. Written when he was Vice-Premier, his achievements reflect the kind of work done by the State Council.
iv. The Central Military Commission
Zhao, Hong. “Graphics: China’s Path of Defense and Military Modernization.” CGTN. October 24, 2020.
Describes the different offices within the Central Military Commision and the overall organization of the Chinese military.
Xinhua. “China Says It Will Never Seek Hegemony in National Defense White Paper” Qiushi Journal. July 25, 2019.
Highlights key tenets of China’s national defense policy, which is to never seek hegemony and expansion. These tenets are reflected by China’s steadily decreased military expenditure as a percentage of GDP.
v. Local People’s Congresses at All Levels and Local People’s Governments at All Levels
CGTN. “Grassroots Governance: The Last Mile to Deliver Happiness to People.” CGTN. July 7, 2020.
Video spot of the Jilin Changchun School for Training Community Cadres as a look into the processes and work at the grassroots level of governance.
Ian Goodrum. “‘The Participation of Workers in Management Embodies the Party’s Principles of Running Enterprises by Relying on the Working Class.’ Workers’ Congresses and Workplace Democracy in China.” Tweet. @isgoodrum (blog). September 21, 2018.
A review of China’s processes for workplace democracy, where workers give feedback on and take a role in deciding company policies.
“Thread: When I tell people that a lot of ppl in China feel their opinions and desires are heard by the government, they look at me like I’ve had a brain aneurism. But there are very good reasons why they feel that way. Here I will attempt to provide some context on that.” Tweet. @willehelmwonka (blog). September 26, 2020.
A brief look into the many ways that the government receives a wide variety and large volume of feedback from the people.
Yang, Jinghao and Zhang, Kai. “Deputies Maintain Close Contact with People in Various Forms.” CGTN. March 7, 2019.
Describes the role of deputies at varying levels of people’s congresses, who serve as an intermediary for everyday people to reach the appropriate government officials, share feedback, and get things done.
Zhao, Hong. “Graphics: China’s Democracy at a Community Level.” CGTN. November 24, 2019.
Illustrates how village committees at the grassroots level are elected.
Zhou, Jingnan. “My Vlog: How to Make My Voice Heard by the Deputies.” CGTN. March 7, 2019.
A video that demonstrates how everyday people can connect with 1 of 2.6 million deputies, who serve at 5 different levels: national, provincial, municipal, county, and township.
vi. Autonomous Organs of Ethnic Autonomous Areas
Qiao Collective is compiling a resource list specific to ethnic minorities in China. It will be linked here when it is completed. See below for a brief introduction to the topic.
Information Office of the State Council of the People's Republic of China. “China’s Ethnic Policy and Common Prosperity and Development of All Ethnic Groups.” China.org.cn. September 27, 2009.
This white paper details many of the contemporary ethnic minority policies that are still in effect today.
Information Office of the State Council of the Peoples Republic of China. “National Minorities Policy and Its Practice in China.” China-un.ch. September 1999.
Although dated, many of the policies described in this paper are still in effect today.
The State Council Information Office of the People’s Republic of China. “Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years of Progress on Human Rights in China.” Chinahumanrights.org. September 23, 2019.
A more recent update on China’s human rights progress, this white paper provides some updated figures for minority-related affairs.
Qiu Shi. “Ethnic Initiatives Since the Sixteenth National Congress of the CPC.” Qiushi Journal. October 8, 2012.
Describes ethnic solidarity as the prime obligation of the Party as expressed through various ethnic initiatives including prioritizing solidarity, stability, and unity, using development to resolve ethnic issues, strengthening ethnic autonomy pursuant to law, and supporting minority culture and leadership.
vii. Commissions of Supervision
CGTN. “China’s Draft Supervision Law: What Is It, Why Does It Matter?” CGTN. March 13, 2018.
Illustrates how the National Supervisory Commission is organizationally set up in relation to the National People’s Congress and the Party.
CGTN’s Closer to China. “China’s New Governance: The National Supervisory Commission.” CGTN. March 28, 2018.
Created in 2018, the National Supervisory Commission reports directly to the National People’s Congress and punishes corruption and rule-breaking among officials.
Hu, Chao. “Supervisory Reform Enhances Efficiency in Shanxi as Pilot.” March 13, 2018.
Describes how streamlining anti-corruption procedures shortened processing time from a few years for a high-profile case to less than 10 days.
He, Guoqiang. “Tackling Corruption in Ten Aspects That Impact Everyday Life.” Qiushi Journal. July 1, 2012.
Lists the high priority types of corruption that the Party seeks to prevent, deter, and punish.
Kuhn, Robert L. “The Watcher: China’s National Supervisory Commission.” CGTN. March 12, 2018.
The National Supervisory Commission enforces separation from other branches of government, which safeguards against conflict of interests. For example, people who work for the The National Supervisory Commission can never work in another branch of government, thus deterring political favors.
viii. People’s Courts and People’s Procuratorates
CGTN. “Come Together: China’s Progress in Building a Law-Based Government.” CGTN. May 22, 2020.
Describes how Chinese law is crafted to be used by ordinary people through policies like public legal education for 700 million citizens and public lawsuit services that streamline the process of going to court.
CGTN. “Job Challenge: Delivering Justice in Remote Inner Mongolia.” CGTN. July 2, 2020.
Illustrates the work of one of China’s mobile courts by having a Westerner take part for a short period. Courts travel to remote areas so people can have access to the Law.
Sun, Qian. “Characteristics of China’s Procuratorial System.” Qiushi Journal. April 1, 2010.
The Procuratorial System is a court system that exists to prosecute government officials if they administer the law unjustly. It exists as a separate entity from the judicial and administrative system and therefore serves to check and balance power.
Shi, Yu. “Graphics: All You Need to Know about China’s Rule of Law.” CGTN. November 28, 2019.
Illustrates the different levels and types of courts in China and summarizes the types of cases handled by both the Supreme People’s Court and the Supreme People’s Procuratorate.
Wang, Mingyan. “A Closer Look at China’s People’s Jury System.” CGTN. March 1, 2017.
Describes how China’s jury system works where jurors are chosen for 5-year tems and are selected from a jury pool to serve on a particular trial.
Yang, Zhao and Shang, Jianglong. “A Look at China’s Judicial System.” CGTN. March 12, 2019.
A brief explainer of China’s 2 court systems, the People’s Courts and people's procuratorates.
Zhang, Jiaming, and Na, Jiang. “Changes after Enforcement of Supervision Law in China.” Chinese Studies 8, no. 4 (November 21, 2019): 222–29.
The National Supervisory Commission consists of discipline inspection, supervisory commissions and people’s procuratorates. Therefore it consolidates the role of legal oversight that had once spanned over two court systems and suffered from conflict of interests from other governing bodies.
d. Communist Party of China Structure and Processes
These sources outline some key organizational structures and processes used by the Communist Party of China.
CGTN. “CPC 100 Years On: How is the CPC organized?” CGTN. June 14, 2021.
Illustrates the different organizing bodies of the CPC.
CGTN. “How Does the CPC Engage with Its Members?” CGTN. October 10, 2017.
Describes high-level how the CPC engages Party members through the Party School.
CGTN. “How Is the CPC National Congress Different from the Two Sessions?” CGTN. October 13, 2017.
Describes the basic roles of the National People’s Congress (NPC) and Chinese Peoples’ Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) in the Two Sessions, the annual legislative meeting held by the NPC in tandem with the CPPCC. Whereas the CPC National Congress is organized by the Party, the Two Sessions is organized by the state.
CGTN. “What Is the CPC National Congress?” CGTN. October 12, 2017.
The CPC National Congress, not to be confused with the National People’s Congress, is the Party’s internal mechanism for electing leaders in the Party and setting the country’s direction.
CGTN. “Why Is the 19th CPC National Congress Important?” CGTN. October 17, 2017.
Defines the relationship between the CPC National Congress, the Central Committee, the Political Bureau, the Political Bureau Standing Committee, and the General Secretary of the Political Bureau Standing Committee.
Hu, Yiwei. “A Simple Guide to 4th Plenary Session of 19th CPC Central Committee.” October 29, 2019.
Describes the 7 plenary sessions that occur every Central Committee’s 5 year-term and what their general content is when the CPC Central Committee meets. This is a process of the CPC, not the state.
Ian Goodrum. ““There Is No Such Thing as a Private Sector That’s Independent of Politics. It Does Not Exist.” Communist Party Committees and the Chinese Enterprise. A Thread” Tweet. @isgoodrum (blog). August 7, 2018.
Describes CPC mechanisms for guiding profit-seeking corporations from within to prioritize employment and consider the greater social good, not just profit.
Yang, Jing. “CGTN Explains: How China Steers Its Economy through Five-Year Plans.” CGTN. October 24, 2020.
The CPC creates the plan for the country’s strategies and goals every 5 years to be reviewed and approved by the National People’s Congress. The CPC takes on this role as the leading Party of China’s multi-party system.
e. Notable Outcomes and Achievements
These sources document some of the outcomes and achievements of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics as prioritized by the Party around creating prosperity, national rejuvenation, social harmony, people’s well-being, and improving the Party’s capacity to lead.
i. Prosperity
CGTN. “Job Challenge: China Push Back the Desert with Generations’ Efforts.” CGTN. April 8, 2019.
Demonstrates the role of workers in creating prosperity through their work. Residents of Zhongwei City in southwest China's Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, once plagued by sand storms, over decades transformed deserts into apple orchards and trees.
Ke, Tizu. “Public Land Ownership: A Key to Explaining the China Miracle.” Qiushi Journal. January 1, 2012.
Land reform, achieved by Mao, lets China make investments in infrastructure that prioritizes developing the productive forces and thereby benefits the vast majority of people. Public ownership ensured the orderly relocation over 30 years of 340 million rural residents into the cities while also guaranteeing they could return to the countryside and farm when higher-paying city jobs became temporarily unavailable.
Ross, John. “China’s Socialist Model Outperforms Capitalism.” Global Times. August 23, 2016.
Op-ed by John Ross, senior fellow at the Chongqin Institute for Financial Studies, Renmin University, argues that China’s socialist system and other socialist countries achieve faster economic development and reduce poverty in decisively greater numbers than capitalist countries. By prioritizing meeting people’s needs, the socialist system creates more wealth than capitalist ones that prioritize profit and therefore hoarding by the rich.
Ross, John. “Why China Will Grow Rich Long before It Grows Old.” China.org.cn. December 8, 2013.
Disproves the claim that China grew rich by exploiting the work of its large labor supply. Looking at the numbers show China’s increased wealth mostly comes from investment, such as in infrastructure, and increased productivity, such as enabled by technology.
ii. National Rejuvenation
CGTN. “China’s 2020 FDI Inflow Expected to Hit Record High: Official Data.” CGTN. December 26, 2020.
Increased foreign direct investment (FDI) is a measure of China’s integration with international finance markets and is capital that China can use to further develop while foreign investors have a shared interest in China’s economic success.
Escobar, Pepe. “Dragon Flies, Eagle Crashes at Geoeconomic Summits.” The Saker. November 23, 2020.
Gives an overview of how international trade agreements and talks like the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP) have put China on track to greater international cooperation and supported the trend towards multilateralism.
Ipsos. “What worries the world: November 2019.” World Worries. November 2019.
Report compiled by Ipsos, the France-based international consulting firm and market research company. In late 2019, 95% in China agreed that China was headed in the right direction, compared with 41% in the US who felt the same about the US. This confidence demonstrates Chinese people’s alignment with government policies.
六爷阿旦. “惊心动魄的2015年，美国金融战收割财富失败，成了国运转折点.” 知乎. August 27, 2020. (Chinese only)
A fairly technical financial and geopolitical explanation that China’s housing market is inflated because of hostile dynamics between the financial markets of the US and China. These dynamics influence the trajectory of China’s economic development and world standing.
Ross, John. “China Is Now the Main Pillar of Globalisation.” China.org.cn. January 16, 2017.
Another op-ed by Ross, arguing that if operated with goals of mutual cooperation, globalization is in the economic interest of all nations and people. Socialist countries have taken the best advantage of this trend by enacting state policies to uplift its working class, and China has taken leadership as the world’s steadfast champion of globalization. Ross notes the protectionist tendencies of labor unions in developed nations, many of which wrongly blame globalization, rather than neoliberalism--or the subsumption of the state to the market, and public goods to private holdings--as the chief cause of their declining quality of life.
Shi, Yu. “In Data: China’s Fight against Corruption in Poverty Alleviation.” CGTN. August 9, 2020.
Argues that punishing officials who engage in corruption is essential for building trust in government and people’s faith in the CPC to lead the nation. Preventing corruption better enables the government to achieve its objectives of increasing people’s quality of life.
Su, Yuting. “Wang Yi Talks to CGTN in Year-End Interview: China’s Role in a COVID-Hit World.” CGTN. January 2, 2021.
Foregin Minister Wang Yi on China’s cooperation and achievements on the international stage regarding COVID-10 response and economic development.
Xi, Jinping. “Full Text of Xi Jinping’s 2021 New Year Address.” CGTN. December 31, 2021.
Xi Jinping reviews China’s 2020 achievement of establishing a moderately prosperous society in all respects, including eliminating extreme poverty. He announces China’s new journey of comprehensively building a modern socialist country.
Xinhua. “Belt and Road Initiative Makes Solid Progress, Embraces Brighter Future.” Xinhua Net. April 23, 2019.
China has signed 173 cooperation agreements with 125 countries and 29 international organizations, which creates international win-wins and supports the trend towards multilateralism.
iii. Social Harmony
CGTN. “Why China Can Achieve Stable Employment” CGTN. August 1, 2019.
By having the government play an important role in education and job creation, China ranked No.1 in employment in world competitiveness ranking, with a less than 4% unemployment rate.
Cunningham, Edward, Tony Saich, and Jesse Turiel. “Understanding CCP Resilience: Surveying Chinese Public Opinion Through Time.” Harvard Kennedy School Ash Center for Democratic Governance and Innovation. July 2020.
The Chinese public has over 90% satisfaction with the central government, according to an over 10-year long Havard study. Satisfaction has increased over the 10 years, though there is greater room for improvement at the local level.
Edelman. “Edelman Trust Barometer 2020.” Edelman. 2020.
Study, conducted by the U.S.-based research firm Edelman Data & Intelligence, showing that compared internationally, China had the highest combined score of people trusting its society’s 4 major institutions of government, media, business, and NGOs. 90% in China trusted the institution of government, more than any other measured nation, including Singapore, Germany, and the US, reflecting the Chinese public’s confidence in the integrity and competency of Chinese institutions.
Wang, Xiaonan and Wang, Zengzheng. “Disabled in China: How Digital Economy Is Creating New Job Opportunities.” CGTN. December 3, 2020.
China offered skills training for more than 2.3 million disabled people over a 5-year period. Although stigma against disability still persists, programs like these help to integrate disabled people and reduce stigma.
Zhao, Hong and Hu, Yiwei. “Graphics: Highlights of China’s SPC’s and SPP’s Annual Work Reports.” CGTN. May 25, 2020.
Illustrates an increase in court cases, which reflects people’s increasing reliance on socialist law to solve relevant problems. Since 1999, the number of people being prosecuted for serious violent crime has gone down by more than half.
iv. People’s Well-being
CGTN. “Feeding 1.4 Billion: China’s ‘Grain for Green’ Program.” CGTN. October 25, 2019.
Good air quality increased from 238 days in 2001 to 315 days in 2018 in Yan'an that partook in China’s “Grain for Green” program where farmers converted farmlands into forests. Vegetation coverage nearly doubled to 81.3 percent.
CGTN. “15 Years on: In China, Green Is New Gold.” CGTN. August 15, 2020.
Illustrates China’s achievements in forest coverage, reducing CO2 emissions, and reducing pollution. Eco-tourism has also increased prosperity.
CGTN. “Why Can China Provide 1.4 Billion People with Healthcare Coverage” CGTN. Jun 14, 2019.
Looks at China’s efforts to provide universal health insurance, what achievements have been made, and what work remains to be done.
China Joint Study Partnership. “Deepening Health Reform In China: Building High-Quality And Value-Based Service Delivery.” 2016.
World Bank Group, World Health Organization, and various Chinese government agencies outline the next phase in health care reform in China based on its existing reform and achievements.
健康中国行动推进委员会. “健康中国行动（2019—2030年).” 卫生健康委网站. July 15, 2019.
Current health indicators for China and government plans to improve citizens’ health over a ten-year period. (Chinese only)
Ning, Hong. “Public Housing Improvements: China Helps Some 200 Million People Improve Housing Conditions.” CGTN. August 14, 2019.
Report on the improving quality of public housing, with breakdown of data showing more than 37 million Chinese living in public housing in 2019, with nearly 22 million more who were receiving public rental subsidies.
Ross, John. “Why China’s Social Achievements Are Even Greater than Its Economic Ones.” Learning from China (blog). April 2016.
GDP per capita is highly correlated with life expectancy. China’s life expectancy is 3 years higher than what would be expected based on international standards, which means that its social achievements further improved life expectancy.
The World Bank and Development Research Center of the State Council, the People’s Republic of China. “Urban China: Toward Efficient, Inclusive, and Sustainable Urbanization.” 2014.
Although China has avoided common ills of urbanization like urban poverty, unemployment, and squalor, challenges like urban-rural income inequality and limitations on worker mobility continue. This report studies how best to use public land to facilitate continued development of productive forces and increasing quality of life.
Voices from the Frontline: China’s War on Poverty. Film. Directed by Peter Getzels. The Kuhn Foundation & PBS Socal, 2020. [available on Youtube]
A documentary film that looks at the process of poverty alleviation in China, including the variety of approaches to reducing poverty, how it’s tracked, and how people feel about it.
You, Yang and Ma, Yunpu. “Fighting Climate Change: China’s Efforts in Energy Saving, Carbon Cutting.” CGTN. November 27, 2019.
China's energy consumption per unit of GDP went down by over 45 percent from the level of 2005. China is doing its part in the global fight against climate change.
Zhao, Hong.“Graphics: Ending China’s Poverty by 2020.” CGTN. October 17, 2019.
Illustrates the progress over time for China to end extreme poverty and the ways that residents’ lives have improved.
v. Party’s Capacity to Lead
CGTN. “Live: International symposium on CPC's 100 years of history.” CGTN video, 3:03:00. June 15, 2021.
Robert Lawrence Kuhn explains why he predicted that China would successfully contain COVID-19, because based on his study of the CPC’s fight against poverty, the CPC has the governing capacity to effectively organize large-scale projects using benchmarks, experimentation, and coordination. He outlines 11 distinctive features of why the CPC can govern effectively. Kuhn’s speech occurs from 2:46:50 - 3:02:00. Other speakers at this symposium highlight other aspects of CPC’s maturation over its 100 year history.
Xi, Jinping. “Speech at a Review Meeting on the Campaign Themed "Staying True to Our Original Aspiration and Founding Mission.” English Edition of Quishi Journal. January 8, 2020.
Xi pinpoints corruption as a failure to stay true to the Party’s original aspiration and founding mission . By strengthening this conviction with systematic diligence while combating bureaucratism, the Party can unify and face new difficulties.
Xi, Jinping. “The Guiding Thoughts and Goals for the Program of Mass Line Education and Practice.” The Governance of China. June 18, 2013.
Xi identifies the Four Malfeasances that obstruct the Party from serving the people and how to address them, including using criticism and self-criticism.
f. News Sources
These sources give updates on China’s policies as it develops Socialism with Chinese Characteristics in the New Era and navigates new situations and contradictions.
Beijing Channel. “Beijing Channel.” Accessed June 19, 2021. https://beijingchannel.substack.com/.
Extended personal commentary and translations by Yang Liu, a writer for Xinhua News Agency. The occasional newsletter provides additional insights into how CPC approaches its policies that are often misunderstood in the West.
China BIG Idea. “China BIG Idea by Yu and Partners.” Accessed June 19, 2021. https://chinabigidea.substack.com/.
Written for corporate and government decision-makers, especially “Fortune Global 100 stakeholders,” this newsletter provides insight into the intersection of business, policy, and geopolitics.
CGTN. “CGTN - Homepage - Breaking News, China News, World News and Video.” Accessed June 19, 2021. https://www.cgtn.com/.
International media organization that promotes communication and understanding between China and the world, presenting timely and objective information from a Chinese perspective in a variety of formats.
Dongsheng. “Dongsheng - Stories about China highlighting Chinese perspectives.” Accessed June 19, 2021. https://dongshengnews.org/en/.
Weekly newsletter curates Chinese news stories on geopolitics, economy, national politics, agriculture and environment, science and technology, and people’s life and culture.
Pekingnology. “Pekingnology.” Accessed June 19, 2021. https://pekingnology.substack.com/.
Extended personal commentary and translations by Zichen Wang, a writer for Xinhua News Agency. The occasional newsletter provides notable interpretations of generally lesser known aspects of important policies and issues.
Qiushi Online. “Qiushi.” Accessed June 19, 2021. http://en.qstheory.cn/
The official publication of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China. An authoritative source for the Party’s high-level policies and theories.
